The views expressed in the publications do not necessarily reflect the views of the German Federal Agency for Civic Education (Bpb), the EENCE Citizenship Education Network or the organizations where the authors work.
Content:
1. Background Information
2. Definition of Citizenship Education
3. Ecosystem of Non-formal Citizenship Education
4. Legal Environment
5. Stakeholders
6. Challenges
7. Footnotes
1. Background Information
Citizenship education plays a crucial role in shaping the interactions between the government and society, as well as in maintaining a cohesive social, cultural, and geopolitical landscape. It is essential for the development of the Russian nation and its society.
Customarily, it fulfills itself in the Russian society with a proactive support from the government recognising it as a national security matter. Throughout the twentieth century, scientists and practitioners had been focusing on individual aspects of citizenship education such as patriotic upbringing, political education, and legal upbringing. The narrative of “fostering communism builders” played an important part in the USSR. It was only in the early 1990’s that transformation of the nation as well as the national educational policy brought the citizenship education concept into the conceptual framework.
The citizenship education concept started establishing itself against the background of the emerging civic society as well as the newly formed system of legal culture. Although the Education Law [15] recognised citizenship education as one of the basic principles of the national educational policy, the objectives and scope of citizenship education set forth therein were ambiguous.
The 1990’s saw Russia rejecting the formerly established upbringing practices, and educational organisations reorienting themselves toward teaching. Educational programmes started including disciplines ensuring citizenship education. Citizenship education and upbringing centres started emerging at vocational upgrading institutions performing scientific, methodological and educational functions to ensure training of civics and citizenship education teachers. Russian government bodies started cooperating with foreign and domestic non-government organisations on citizenship education matters.
A debate was ongoing regarding objectives of citizenship education as well as approaches to it including: 1) the customary Russian approach recognising citizens as (first and foremost) public actors, and prioritising public interests; 2) the foreign approach prioritising personal development of citizens, individualistic values, and personal interests; 3) the approach integrating the two former ones. Interest in foreign approaches and application thereof in Russia accompanied prioritising a humane paradigm of citizenship education as well as the focus on personal liberty as striving towards personal identity and fulfillment. Numerous matters de-escalated to the regional level resulting into emergence of regional programmes for citizenship education development as well as trials of various citizenship education models subject to domestic and foreign lessons learnt.
In the early 2000’s, the strategic approach to educational issues gained the upper hand, with the government acting as a catalyst of changes to citizenship education once again. Draft Citizenship Education Frameworks were on review (2003). The Framework for Upgrading Russian Education until 2010 (No. 393 of 11 February 2002) recognised fostering citizenship as one of the priorities of the national educational policy. Its objective was “upbringing citizens for life in the democratic country as well as in the civic society”. Still, citizenship education in Russia faces challenges arising from its methodological and theoretical foundations such as:
1) the unconditional priority of personal interests over any other interests and needs is counterproductive (G.V. Vasilieva) as it promotes societal alienation of citizens, and atomizes the society;
2) citizenship education manifesting itself in teaching predominantly is limited in terms of ensuring actual participation of citizens in the public life (I.D. Frumin);
3) fostering the new type of citizenship including transforming the concept of “a national of a specific country” into the concept of “a global citizen” causes disputes and concern among certain researchers (O.V. Lebedeva).
The past decade saw reevaluation of approaches to civic education including 1) regulatory documents prioritising focus on fostering traditional values as well as taking account of national interests in citizenship education, which manifests itself, among other things, in re-establishment of patriotic upbringing (including military patriotic and civic patriotic upbringing) as one of the priorities of the national educational policy; 2) resorting to project-based model of citizenship education, introducing project-based teaching into all levels of education, and providing conditions for completion of social project by citizens; 3) focusing on a comprehensive approach to fostering civic competencies (knowledge, relations, skills, and hands-on experience); 4) maintaining connections between educational and civic society institutions; 5) paying more attention to upbringing [1].
G.A. Klyucharev and I.N. Trofimov believe that focusing on national stability, security and integrity is a distinctive feature of the current approach to citizenship education in Russia [4]. The status of a citizen transforms from a “reality from the above” into a social and political construct, with the citizenship education in its broadest sense becoming a tool for creating the construct. As capacities of formal educational institutions are limited when it comes to completely mastering practices of citizen participation in the public life in Russia, integration of educational programmes and social practices started in the form of ensuring interactions of students from all educational levels with social partners representing various communities.
The current development of citizenship education systems is a dialog of various actors as well as a search for ways for aligning their viewpoints for the purposes of operating between the poles of a number of key binary oppositions:
1) “personal interests (personal success) versus the public good” for ensuring the personal and the public interests (public good), which requires good citizenship, interaction as well as cooperation;
2) “personal fulfilment versus cooperation” for fostering generational, institutional and cultural dialog against the background of rapidly spreading digital technologies as well as growing segmentation of the media;
3) “reproduction versus transformation” for ensuring acceptance of civic values, law abidance as well as good citizenship, on the one hand, and involvement with reforming the civic society.
The review of literature for the past 3 years, national citizenship education projects as well as educational initiatives demonstrates that, provided various approaches to defining the citizenship education remain, patriotic upbringing will become a primary component of citizenship education [6].
2. Definition of Citizenship Education
Citizenship education stands in connection with a dynamically changing state of the civic society. The definition itself and such questions as who the citizen of Russia is as well as which civic competencies it must possess remain disputable.
On the substantive part, citizenship education includes various areas such as social and cultural, moral, political, legal, patriotic, public, economic and personal, with both the processes of citizenship upbringing, education and development and the processes of processes of personal identity, good citizenship and participation in the public life acting as subsystems of citizenship education.
From the axiological standpoint, citizenship education aims at socializing a person by translating a system of values, and fostering conditions for mastering public life rules. What we are seeing now is a shift from such civic values as the public good, human rights, liberty, justice, equality, pluralism, truthfulness as well as patriotism [3] towards fostering patriotism, social responsibility, traditional family values, environmental welfare as well as technological leadership [27]. As far as the results go, citizenship education stands in connection with fostering civic competencies, capacities for playing civic parts, and participating in the political, legal and public areas of the public life.
Generalising the reported constructions, we can define citizenship education as a process and system of education and upbringing aiming at fostering social activism and public activity relying on civic and legal knowledge as well as moral values that are required for successful socialisation and meaningful involvement with the life of the rule-of-law state and civic society.
3. Ecosystem of Citizenship Education
The citizenship education fulfils itself in the continuous education system of Russia as follows:
1. Within the framework of specific disciplines, upbringing operations as well as upbringing and educational arrangements for pre-school- and schoolchildren in formal education (including general and vocational as well as vocational upgrading educational institutions). The Federal National Educational Standard (FNES), federal programmes as well as regional components, approaches of faculties of educational institutions as well as personal programmes of teachers define the contents of citizenship education. The FNES lists the competencies that graduates must have and development whereof requires maintenance. These expectations correspond to civic competencies in many respects.
As of September 2022, certain patriotic upbringing programmes have been seeing development and implementation at pre-school educational institutions relying on the new Federal Educational Programme for Pre-School Education (FEPPSE) [21].
Unification, regulation and adoption of generally accepted national norm manifests itself not only in forms of activities but also in the contents of the programmes. Year 2023 saw all the schools adopting federal basic educational programmes (FBEPs) [22, 23, 24], the framework whereof ensures unification of programmes and text-books for all liberal arts [25]. For example, the unificated history text-book has been in use in 2023 and 2024 [13, 14]. Other text-books are under development while programmes and disciplines are under revision. For example, the Safety and Livelihood Basics school subject has become known as Safety Basic and Motherland Protection as of 2024, and its programme includes basic military training.
Year 2022 saw the establishment of the All-Russian Dvizheniye Pervykh which is a National Public Youth Movement for persons of 6 to 25 years old. The movement’s offices are present in all federal constituents and municipalities of Russia. The movement implements its federal programmes (patriotic, scientific and research, creative, etc.) under the auspices of schools and educations institutions subject to regional features.
2. Within the infrastructural framework of the national youth and social policy as well as within the system of supplementary education for adults and children, and within the framework of municipal network projects and structures outside the school. This area of citizenship education also sees the drive towards unification of programmes as well as implementation of federal programmes at the regional level. An example of this is the All-Russian Public-State Educational Organization ‘Russian Society Znanie (Knowledge)’ aiming at awareness-raising in Russian regions, promoting science, informing of scientific achievements in plain language as well as supporting educational projects. Although its target audience consists of students and young professionals, the organisation also aims at adapting the elderly to the modern world of information. As far as the contents of such work goes, it focuses mainly on the official national policy as well as maintaining stability and sustainability of the government and society.
3. Within the framework of educational and awareness-raising projects hosted by NGO’s, businesses, citizen action groups, faith-based organizations, private universities as well as other independent actors outside the national structures. Frequently, this environment generates innovative projects and topics that may also fulfill themselves potentially in national projects and programmes. Although this sector is open predominantly for global practices and partnerships, it faces numerous restrictions on developing such relations nowadays. According to some experts, the current new reality focuses on and ensures development of such areas as regional studies and development of small territories using methods of cultural and creative industries, good neighbourliness and rethinking of partnerships with the CIS countries. Programmes promoting traditional family values, fostering environmental consciousness, supporting volunteer movements, creating accessible urban environments as well as establishing spaces for young people in the regions of Russia remain the national generally accepted trends. Some other topics and priorities such as non-violent communications, critical thinking, and anti-bulling activities within frameworks of faculties and some other collectives have outgrown this niche and become more widespread.
4. Legal Environment
The past decade saw material regulatory changes to the federal citizenship education policy.
It relies on the Upbringing Development Strategy of the Russian Federation for the Period until Year 2025 adopted back in 2015 [27]. It includes a dedicated section on citizenship upbringing. Numerous regions have adopted their own citizenship or citizenship and patriotic upbringing frameworks generally corresponding to the federal strategy.
The Federal Project Patriotic Upbringing of Citizens of the Russian Federation initiated on 1 January 2021 and scheduled for completion in 2026 within the framework of the National Education Project aims at fostering harmonious personal development and social responsibility of relying on spiritual and moral values of the peoples of the Russian Federation, their historical, national and cultural traditions. The fundamental concept of the program is Ten Aspects of Patriotism, or 10 important manifestations of patriotism such as sports, environmental protection, teaching, culture, media, science, family, history, volunteering, and service of the country. Since 2024, all the primary citizenship education programmes have been implemented within the framework of this federal project. At its current stage, the program covers 24 percent of Russian nationals of various ages and includes development and implementation of upbringing programmes in each general and vocational education institution, establishing patriotic or military patriotic clubs, etc. [29].
In many respects, the contents of its citizenship education and patriotic upbringing programmes relies on Decree of the President of the Russian Federation No. 809 dated 09.11.2022 On Approval of National Policy Foundations for Preserving and Reinforcing Russian Traditional Spiritual and Moral Values focusing on combating destructive ideologies spreading from hostile countries, preserving historical memory and combating attempts of falsifying history, promoting family values, supporting traditional religious denominations, protecting the Russian language, reinforcing the all-Russian identity as well as inter-ethnic concord, etc. [30].
The Decree On National Development Objectives of the Russian Federation for the Period until 2030 and for Further Extension until 2036 executed in 2024 aims at “reinforcing the national, cultural and axiological as well as economic sovereignty relying on Russian traditional spiritual and moral values as well as principles of patriotism, focus on people, social justice, and equal opportunities. The decree sets forth the following targets: bringing the percentage of young people participating in projects and programmes aiming at vocational and personal development as well as patriotic upbringing to 75 percent by 2030; bringing the percentage of young people believing in personal fulfilment opportunities in Russian to 85 percent; and bringing the percentage of young people involved with volunteer and public activities to 45 percent [28].
Years 2020 and 2021 saw a number of legislative changes including 1) adoption of Federal Law On the Youth Policy of the Russian Federation No. 489-FZ of 30 December 2020 [18] recognising citizenship and patriotic upbringing as the contents of the youth policy and one of its foci; 2) amendments to Federal Law On Education in the Russian Federation including a) on student upbringing matters (No. 304-FZ) [16] raising the status of upbringing as well as proclaiming working upbringing programmes mandatory for educational institutions in Russia; b) on awareness-raising activities [17] making control of contents and performers of awareness-raising activities more stringent.
Years 2022 to 2024 have seen adoption or tightening of such laws as the law prohibiting LGBTQ propaganda [34], the law criminalizing fake publications on the armed forces of Russia as well as the law criminalizing defamation of the army [35], and the law criminalizing extremist material trafficking [36]. The National Policy Framework for Perpetuation of the Memory of Victims of Political Repressions has been amended as well [37]. These and some other laws as well as framework documents actually facilitate censorship and impose restrictions on a number of relevant citizenship education activities.
The Law On Foreign Agents adopted back in 2012 (272-FZ) and extended in 2020 (481-FZ) [32], and the Law On Undesirable Organizations [33] put pressure on interactions with foreign partners (especially the ones from the list of hostile countries) [38]. Since 2022, application of these laws has extended greatly. As at this writing, the inventory of undesirable organisations includes 188 foreign and international organisations, while the registry of foreign agents includes 860 Russian individuals and companies, many of which associate themselves with citizenship education and upbringing. Undesirable organisations may do no business whatsoever within the Russian Federation, and cooperation with them entails administrative and criminal punishment. The foreign agent status imposes numerous restrictions on businesses and, frequently, results into suspension or termination thereof.
The past five years saw material changes to the regulatory framework of citizenship education in Russia, which reflects the current national policy priorities. The new laws focus on patriotic upbringing as a key component of citizenship education. The government sets forth more stringent requirements to contents of educational programmes as well as stricter controls of performance thereof.
5. Stakeholders
The government remains proactive as far as development of citizenship education goes. Efforts of the government to bring the general public into the process of citizenship education of the population, and to improve connections of the process actors such as educational institutions (general, vocational and supplementary education as well as vocational upgrading educational institutions) and social institutions (businesses as well as non-profit, non-government and faith-based organisations, and public-to-private partnerships). The federal frameworks provide shared spaces and agendas for citizenship education, with Rosmolodezh Youth Agency and its business units playing a proactive part here.
Non-profit organisations as well as small-scale citizen action groups perform innovative functions more often while working with complicated topics. There are examples of individual integration projects acting as umbrellas for various stakeholders and actors. For example, the Klassnaya Strana (Cool / Class mate Country) project initiated by the government entities aims at career counselling and personal identity of youth leaders, fostering patriotism in children and young people by developing domestic tourism and regional studies.
6. Challenges
The citizenship education in Russia faces transformation and turmoil resulting from the political situation. Citizenship education researchers and practitioners talk about numerous issues and challenges. Below, we list some of the most important thereof relying on papers and expert interviews.
Unlike citizenship education that allows fostering cognitive, regulatory and axiological as well as behavioral components of the national identity, patriotic upbringing dominant in Russia aims at the emotional component only. Back in the past, researchers noted that it posed a threat of fostering blind patriotism as well as causing national and international conflicts [10]. The recent studies among students show that orienting students towards good citizenship corresponds to blind patriotism exactly [11].
Moreover, citizenship education practitioners implementing the federal programmes note that sincere interest in traditional formats and contents of patriotic upbringing is low among the young people, and there is a need for updating teaching and methodological approaches.
School teachers whom the government tasks, in numerous respects, with patriotic upbringing are actually not up to the task. They do not perceive fostering civic identities as an important upbringing paradigm because civic identities are not a part of their own world view and are, therefore, perceived as immaterial for the near future image, their own personal identities, and personal identities of their students [12].
Citizenship education stakeholders are divided among themselves as far as supporting or not supporting the current national policy and ideology goes. They belong to different weight classes as far as access to wide audiences and resources is concerned. They develop separately of each other and, frequently, in completely opposing directions. Low mutual trust, no safe spaces for joint reflection and dialog as well as current laws impose restrictions on their interactions.
Numerous practitioners and experts agree that connections are disrupted, and numerous professionals (including those in citizenship education) leave Russia, which is one of the causes of pessimism and burnouts for NGO’s and educational institutions. On the other hand, Russian expatriates abroad are actively building new networks as well as new citizenship education projects. Still, year 2023 saw a certain decrease of interest in political and civic topics that may bring new people into citizenship education versus year 2022 [13]. Fading business development prospects complicate bringing of new professionals into citizenship education and awareness-raising.
Censorship, self-censorship, pressure both from the government and the general public (regardless of the political spectrum) foster fear and make it impossible to maintain the open public dialog and meaningful work on numerous urgent topics. It results into either withdrawal into information and ideological echo chambers perceived as more adequate and safer, or avoidance, or shifting towards “neutral” topics and practices. Political environment notwithstanding, handling of complex and ambiguous historical memories, the current war / special military operation, ethnic minorities policies as well as rethinking of good neighbourliness by citizenship education actors seems to be the greatest challenge in the near future. Still, interest in political and public topics, emerging narratives as well as urgent and relevant matters hold a potential for development of citizenship education. We believe in the need for developing dialog formats aiming at combating atomisation, polarisation, distrust, etc. as a foundation for critical and meaningful understanding of public topics and processes as well as for developing the creative potential of the society.
7. Footnotes
1. G.V. Vasilieva, 2012. The Concept of Citizenship Education and Key Implementation Priorities Thereof in Modern Universities. Council of Rectors No. 10. 5: 34-39.
2. N.A. Grigorieva, 2009. The National Policy and Practice of Developing Citizenship Education in Russia, (1958-2006), Peremena Publishers, Volgograd. 32. Pages 22-23
3. N.A. Grigorieva, I.L. Yatsukova, 2020. Textbook: Historical and Current Citizenship Education in Russia – Mir Nauki, Moscow, 133.
4. G.A. Klyucharev, I.N. Trofimova, 2016. Citizenship Education in the Interests of the Person, Society, and Government. Education and Science in Russia: Status and Development Potential. 14: 87-105., Page 15
5. A.P. Fakhretdinova. Development Tendencies of Citizenship Education in Russia and Abroad // Science and Education Prospects. 2022. No. 2 (56). Pages 62-76.
6. O.V. Lebedeva, 2005. Development of Citizenship Education in Russia (Eighteenth to Early Twenty-First Century), VyatGU Publishers, Kirov. Page 34.
7. I.D. Frumin, 1997. Citizenship Education: Controvertial Points and Possible Trends. Direktor Shkoly No. 5. 2: 57-58.
8. E.N. Khludova, 2006. Features of Youth Participation Political Culture against the Background of Transforming Russian Society, TulGU Publishers, Tula. 26
9. Sanina A.G. Patriotism and patriotic education in modern Russia. Sociological Studies, 2016, no. 5, pp. 44-53. (in Russ.)
10. O.Yu. Muller, I.A. Kudreyko. Controversies, Patterns and Principles of Citizenship Education in Educational Theory and Practice // Severniy Region: Nauka, Obrazovanie, Kultura. 2023. No. 2. Pages 46–53. DOI 10.35266/2312-377X-2023-2-46-53
11. M.R. Bignova. Civic Identity in Education: Aspects of the Issue / M.R. Bignova, O.V. Putina. – Text: Digital // Biznes i Obshchestvo. – 2023. – No. 4 (40). – URL: http://busines-society.ru/2023/4-40-2/94_bignova.pdf. – Published on 12/12/2023
12. Sergeeva, I., & Kamalov, E. (2024, February 22). A Year and a Half in Exile: Progress and Obstacles in the Integration of Russian Migrants. https://doi.org/10.31235/osf.io/ckf4v
13. History. History of Russia. 1914 to 1945. Grade 10. Basic Level: Textbook / V.R. Medinskiy, A.V. Torkunov – Edition 2, Updated – Moscow: Prosveshcheniye, 2023. – 496 pages: illustrated
14. World History. Current History. Grade 10. Basic and Advanced Levels / A.V. Shubin; Endorsed by V.R. Medinskiy; Russian Military Historical Society – Edition 3, Reprinted – Moscow: Prosveshcheniye, 2023. – 384 pages: illustrated
Regulatory References:
15. Federal Law No. 273-FZ On Education in the Russian Federation: [enacted by the State Duma on 21 December 2012: endorsed by the Council of the Federation on 26 December 2012]. – Moscow, Eksmo, 2019. – 144 pages – ISBN 978-5-04-105704-6
16. Federal Law No. 304-FZ of 31 July 2020 On Amending the Federal Law On Education in the Russian Federation regarding Student Upbringing Matters
17. Federal Law No. 85-FZ of 5 April 2021 On Amending the Federal Law On Education in the Russian Federation
18. Federal Law No. 489-FZ of 30 December 2020 On the Youth Policy in the Russian Federation
19. Federal Law No. 304-FZ of 31 July 2020 On Amending the Federal Law On Education in the Russian Federation regarding Student Upbringing Matters
20. Federal Law No. 85-FZ of 5 April 2021 On Amending the Federal Law On Education in the Russian Federation
21. Order of the Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation No. 1028 of 25.11.2022 On Approval of the Federal Educational Programme for Pre-School Education (Registered under No. 71847 on 28.12.2022)
22. Order of the Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation No. 370 of 18.05.2023 On Approval of the Federal Educational Programme for Primary General Education” (Registered under No. 74223 on 12.07.2023)
23. Order of the Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation No. 371 of 18.05.2023 On Approval of the Federal Educational Programme for Secondary General Education (Registered under No. 74228 on 12.07.2023)
24. Order of the Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation No. 372 of 18.05.2023 On Approval of the Federal Educational Programme for Elementary General Education” (Registered under No. 74229 on 12.07.2023)
25. Order of the Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation No. 119 of 21.02.2024 On Amending Appendices No. 1 and No. 2 to Order of the Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation No. 858 of 21 September 2022 On Approval of the Federal Inventory of Textbooks Endorsed for Use for Implementing Government-Accredited Educational Programmes for Elementary General, Primary General and Secondary General Education by Educational Organisations, and Setting Forth the Deadline for Use of Excluded Textbooks (Registered under No. 77603 on 22.03.2024)
26. Order of the Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation No. 171 of 19 March 2024 On Amending Certain Orders of the Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation regarding Federal Education Programmes for Elementary General Education, Primary General Education and Secondary General Education
27. Upbringing Development Strategies of the Russian Federation for the Period until 2025. Approved on 29 May 2015 with Resolution of the Government of the Russian Federation No. 996-r.
28. Decree of the President of the Russian Federation No. 309 of 07.05.2024 On National Development Objectives of the Russian Federation for the Period until 2030 and for Further Extension until 2036
29. Federal Project Patriotic Upbringing of Citizens of the Russian Federation within the Framework of the National Education Project, https://edu.gov.ru/national-project/projects/patriot/
30. Decree of the President of the Russian Federation No. 809 of 09.11.2022 On Approval of National Policy Foundations for Preserving and Reinforcing Russian Traditional Spiritual and Moral Values
31. Decree of the President of the Russian Federation No. 809 of 09.11.2022 On Approval of National Policy Foundations for Preserving and Reinforcing Russian Traditional Spiritual and Moral Values
32. Federal Law No. 481-FZ of 30 December 2020 supplementing Federal Law No. 272-FZ of 28 December 2012 On Retaliation against Accessories to Breaches of Fundamental Human Rights and Liberties as well as Rights and Liberties of Citizens of the Russian Federation
34. Federal Law No. 478-FZ of 05.12.2022 On Amending the Federal Law On Information, Information Technologies and Information Security, and Certain Enactments of the Russian Federation
35. Federal Law No. 32-FZ of 4 March 2022 On Amending the Criminal Code of the Russian Federation, and Articles 31 and 151 of the Criminal Procedure Code of the Russian Federation
36. Federal Law No. 231-FZ of 13 June 2023 On Amending the Administrative Offence Code of the Russian Federation
37. Resolution of the Government of the Russian Federation No. 1564-r of 20.06.2024 On Amending Resolution of the Government of the Russian Federation No. 1561-r of 15.08.2015 On the National Policy Framework for Perpetuation of the Memory of Victims of Political Repressions.
38. Resolution of the Government of the Russian Federation No. 430-r of 05.03.2022 On Approval of the Inventory of Foreign States and Territories Performing Hostile Actions against the Russian Federation as well as Russian Companies and Individuals
